Article
Paul Graham
Paul Graham@paulg

What Languages Fix

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**Algol:** Assembly language is too low-level. **Pascal:** Algol doesn't have enough data types.

**Modula:** Pascal is too wimpy for systems programming.

**Simula:** Algol isn't good enough at simulations. **Smalltalk:** Not everything in Simula is an object.

**Fortran:** Assembly language is too low-level.

**Cobol:** Fortran is scary.

**PL/1:** Fortran doesn't have enough data types.

**Ada:** Every existing language is missing something.

**Basic:** Fortran is scary.

**APL:** Fortran isn't good enough at manipulating arrays.

**J:** APL requires its own character set.

**C:** Assembly language is too low-level.

**C++:** C is too low-level.

**Java:** C++ is a kludge. And Microsoft is going to crush us.

**C#:** Java is controlled by Sun.

**Lisp:** Turing Machines are an awkward way to describe computation.

**Scheme:** MacLisp is a kludge.

**T:** Scheme has no libraries.

**Common Lisp:** There are too many dialects of Lisp.

**Dylan:** Scheme has no libraries, and Lisp syntax is scary.

**Perl:** Shell scripts/awk/sed are not enough like programming languages. **Python:** Perl is a kludge.

**Ruby:** Perl is a kludge, and Lisp syntax is scary.

**Prolog:** Programming is not enough like logic.

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